Geophysical Assessment of Topsoil Quality and Aquifer Vulnerability in Ikot Ekpene Metropolis, Akwa Ibom State

Authors

  • God'swill William Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa lbom State polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, Nigeria.
  • Ekemini Umoren Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa lbom State polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, Nigeria.
  • Godspower Udo Department of Civil Engineering, Akwa lbom State polytechnic, Ikot Osurua, Nigeria.

https://doi.org/10.48314/jcase.v3i1.71

Abstract

In the heart of Ikot Ekpene Metropolis, a bustling hub of raffia crafts and commerce in northern Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria, rapid urbanization is quietly eroding the delicate balance between topsoil integrity and the safety of underlying aquifers. This comprehensive review synthesizes over a decade of geophysical investigations from 2014 to 2025 using Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), and Dar-Zarrouk parameters to unravel the threats posed by anthropogenic pressures like waste dumpsites and industrial runoff. Nestled in the permeable sands of the Benin Formation, the region's topsoil emerges as a fragile first line of defense: heterogeneous layers with resistivities spanning 65-2,839 Ωm and high porosity (0.27-0.40) betray its vulnerability to degradation, evidenced by sinkholes, elevated heavy metals (lead up to 0.0010 mg/L, nickel to 0.029 mg/L), and low Longitudinal Conductance (LC) (0.01-0.36 S) signaling poor protectivity in 65-96% of sites. Aquifer vulnerability assessments, blending Depth, Recharge, Aquifer, Soil, Topography, Impact, Conductivity (DRASTIC) and Groundwater Occurrence (G), Overall Lithology of Overlying Strata (O), Depth to Groundwater (D) (GOD) models with Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping, paint a sobering picture: 62-75% of zones rate as moderately to highly susceptible, driven by shallow depths (1-121m), robust recharge (0.68-2.61 m/day), and gentle topography that funnels contaminants into prolific but exposed groundwater reserves (estimated at 7.15 × 10⁸ m³). Urban cores, especially southeastern ravines, amplify risks, with 87.5% of aquifers offering weak barriers against leachates, contrasting milder rural fringes like Obot Akara. These findings spotlight a high inconsistency in groundwater potential (85-96.7%) shadowed by contamination perils that could spark health crises. By weaving geophysical data with hydrogeochemical insights, this study exposes gaps in current monitoring and urges integrated strategies: from afforestation and regulated borehole siting to policy-driven waste zoning and advanced multi-method fusions like GOD-DRASTIC hybrids. Ultimately, safeguarding Ikot Ekpene's aquifers demands a human-centered pivot-empowering communities, bridging research silos, and fostering resilient urban growth to preserve this vital resource for generations amid Nigeria's coastal sedimentary challenges.

Keywords:

Geophysical assessment, Topsoil quality, Aquifer vulnerability, Ikot Ekpene metropolis

References

  1. [1] Nwozor, R. N., Bassey, N. E., George, N. J., & Harry, T. A. (2025). Hydrogeophysical and hydrogeological characterization of groundwater in parts of the Benin Formation, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria: Implications for sustainable water resource management. Researchers journal of science and technology, 5(1), 45–68. https://rejost.com.ng/index.php/home/article/view/169
  2. [2] Thomas, J. E., Udosen, N. I., Ekanem, A. M., & George, N. J. (2025). Hydrogeological and electrostratigraphic modeling of coastal aquifers: Investigating systemic vulnerability, hydraulic yield potential, and corrosivity pathways. Solid earth sciences, 10(2), 100243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sesci.2025.100243
  3. [3] Ikpe, E., & Ekanem, K. R. (2024). Evaluation of protectivity of aquifer using Dar-Zarrouk Parameters in Ikot Ekpene urban and its environs. Optimality, 1(1), 121–139. https://doi.org/10.22105/opt.v1i1.40
  4. [4] Udoh, A. C., Usoro, A. E., & Chinwuko, A. I. (2024). Integrated assessment of pollution status of MSW sites: A case study of Uyo, Ikot Ekpene and Oron, Akwa Ibom State, southern Nigeria. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 196(4), 397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-12548-8%0A%0A
  5. [5] Akpan, D. R. O. P., & Ikpe, D. R. E. O. (2025). Geophysical investigation of groundwater contamination level within Ikot Ekpene and obot Akara metropolis using dar-zarrouk parameters. IRE journals, 6(2), 61–76. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394407323
  6. [6] Ekanem, К. Р., Yinyang, У. У., & Window, Н. Н. (2024). Featural analysis, protective capacity, and potential of shallow hydro-geological layers of densely populated residential area, Akwa Ibom State, Southern Nigeria. Geology and geophysics of southern Russia, 14(3), 99–111. https://doi.org/10.46698/i4023-5828-1369-h
  7. [7] Akidi, S. O., Ubechu, B. O., Obioha, Y. E., Ikechukwu, C. C., & Amadi, C. C. (2024). Geoelectrical resistivity mapping for sustainable groundwater management in Umuahia South: Insights from vertical electrical sounding. International journal of science and research archive, 13(01), 2296–2319. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2024.13.1.1922
  8. [8] Ekanem, A. M., & Udosen, N. I. (2023). Hydrogeochemical-geophysical investigations of groundwater quality and susceptibility potential in Ikot Ekpene--Obot Akara local government areas, Southern Nigeria. Water practice & technology, 18(11), 2675–2704. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2023.187
  9. [9] Ikpe, E. O., Ekanem, A. M., & George, N. J. (2022). Modelling and assessing the protectivity of hydrogeological units using primary and secondary geoelectric indices: A case study of Ikot Ekpene Urban and its environs, southern Nigeria. Modeling earth systems and environment, 8(4), 4373–4387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-022-01366-x%0A%0A
  10. [10] Ekanem, A. M., & Ebong, S. T. (2025). Combined geophysical and hydrogeological evaluation of groundwater characteristics in and around Obio Akpa Campus, Akwa Ibom State University, Nigeria. Discover geoscience, 3(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-025-00309-0%0A%0A
  11. [11] Ekanem, K. R., George, N. J., Ekanem, A. M., Udosen, N. I., & Thomas, J. E. (2025). Predictive hydrogeophysical modelling of subsurface conditions using geo-electrical data along a water channel in Akwa Ibom State, Southern Nigeria. Researchers journal of science and technology, 5(4), 92–120. https://www.rejost.com.ng/index.php/home/article/view/196
  12. [12] Ezeadichie, N. H., Nkwunonwo, U. C., Onodugo, V. A., John Nsa, C., Lawrence, E. A., & Sampson, M. (2022). Are home-based enterprises (HBEs) an economic lifeline or scenic distortion In Nigeria? Evidence from Ikot Epkene, Akwa Ibom State. Habitat international, 127, 102623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2022.102623
  13. [13] Udo, I. G., Udofia, P. A., Etukudo, N. J., & Adesina, D. A. (2023). Paleoenvironmental interpretation of the exposed section of the Benin Formation in southeastern part of the Niger Delta Basin, Nigeria: A pebble morphometric approach. IOSR journal of applied geology and geophysics, 11, 12–19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/399605942
  14. [14] Umoh, E. S., Emujakporue, G. O., Sofolabo, A. O., & Mkpese, U. U. (2025). Evaluation of annual soil temperature cycles at different pedology and times over a period of one year in Ikot Ekpene local government area, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of applied sciences & environmental management, 29(4). https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v29i4.2%0A
  15. [15] Eradiri, J. N., Odafen, E. E., Okwara, I. C., Mode, A. W., Anyiam, O. A., Ulasi, N. A., & Umeadi, M. I. (2021). Sedimentary facies and petrographic analyses of Miocene nearshore deposits, Central swamp depobelt, onshore Niger delta basin: Implications for reservoir quality. Journal of sedimentary environments, 6(4), 665–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-021-00076-1%0A%0A
  16. [16] Egbueri, J. C., Agbasi, J. C., Onuba, L. N., Nweke, N. D., Uwajingba, H. C., & Abba, S. I. (2025). Groundwater development within the Nigerian crystalline and sedimentary aquifers: Challenges and opportunities. Groundwater in developing countries: Case studies from Mena, Asia and West Africa, 297–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-79122-2_13%0A%0A
  17. [17] Ourarhi, S., Barkaoui, A. E., Zarhloule, Y., Kadiri, M., & Bouiss, H. (2024). Groundwater vulnerability assessment in the Triffa Plain based on GIS combined with DRASTIC, SINTACS, and GOD models. Modeling earth systems and environment, 10(1), 619–629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01801-7%0A%0A
  18. [18] Mehta, D., Patel, P., Sharma, N., & Eslamian, S. (2024). Comparative analysis of DRASTIC and GOD model for groundwater vulnerability assessment. Modeling earth systems and environment, 10(1), 671–694. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-023-01795-2%0A%0A
  19. [19] Muhammad, S., Khalid, P., Ehsan, M. I., Qureshi, J., & Farooq, S. (2023). Evaluation of aquifer parameters through integrated approach of geophysical investigations, pumping test analysis and Dar-Zarrouk parameters in the central part of Bari Doab, Punjab, Pakistan. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 195(12), 1435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12049-0%0A%0A
  20. [20] Ekwok, S. E., Ben, U. C., Eldosouky, A. M., Qaysi, S., Akpan, A. E., & Andráš, P. (2022). Towards understanding the extent of saltwater incursion into the coastal aquifers of Akwa Ibom State, Southern Nigeria using 2D ERT. Journal of king saud university-science, 34(8), 102371. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018364722005523
  21. [21] Ebong, E. D., Abong, A. A., Ulem, E. B., & Ebong, L. A. (2021). Geoelectrical resistivity and geological characterization of hydrostructures for groundwater resource appraisal in the Obudu Plateau, Southeastern Nigeria. Natural resources research, 30(3), 2103–2117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-021-09818-4
  22. [22] Tripathi, R. (2025). Determining subsurface bedrock depth using vertical electrical sounding: Principles, applications, and case studies. Frontiers in emerging multidisciplinary sciences, 2(01), 1–7. https://irjernet.com/index.php/fems/article/view/60
  23. [23] Adiat, K. A. N., Akinlalu, A. A., & Sanusi, S. O. (2024). Groundwater exploration in Nigeria: Harnessing electrical resistivity methods and emerging techniques. Geology and natural resources of nigeria, 445–459. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781003454908-26
  24. [24] Zhang, M., Feng, X., Bano, M., Xing, H., Wang, T., Liang, W., & Zhang, Y. (2022). Review of ground penetrating radar applications for water dynamics studies in unsaturated zone. Remote sensing, 14(23), 5993. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14235993
  25. [25] Akingboye, A. S. (2025). Electrical and seismic refraction methods: Fundamental concepts, current trends, and emerging machine learning prospects. Discover geoscience, 3(1), 87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-025-00169-8%0A%0A
  26. [26] Giannino, F., & Leucci, G. (2021). Electromagnetic methods in geophysics: Applications in GeoRadar, FDEM, TDEM, and AEM. John Wiley & Sons. https://www.amazon.nl/-/en/Fabio-Giannino-ebook/dp/B09F8C4XTQ
  27. [27] Gupta, M. (2025). Electromagnetic methods in biogeophysics. Remote sensing for geophysicists, 237–248. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781003485278-21
  28. [28] Hamdi Nasr, I., Issaou, W., Hallal, N., Lamine, S., Zouaoui, W., & Khaskoussi, S. (2025). Integrated approach for landslide characterization in Northern Tunisia using electric resistivity tomography, geotechnical analysis and GIS tools. Geocarto international, 40(1), 2596973. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2025.2596973
  29. [29] Udosen, N. I., Ekanem, A. M., & George, N. J. (2024). Geophysical exploration to assess leachate percolation and aquifer protectivity within hydrogeological units at a major open dump in Eket, Nigeria. Results in earth sciences, 2, 100022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rines.2024.100022
  30. [30] van der Ley, M. (2021). Hydrogeochemistry, residence times, and flow processes of ground and surface waters in the Lawn Hill Region, Northwest Queensland, Australia. https://www.proquest.com/openview/92b44993ab2a8f0c5a66193836f797e6/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y
  31. [31] Akingboye, A. S. (2021). Geohydraulic and vulnerability assessment of tropically weathered and fractured gneissic aquifers using combined electrical resistivity and geostatistical methods. Search life-sciences literature. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1103032/v1
  32. [32] Olasunkanmi, N. K., Ogundele, D. T., Olayemi, V. T., Yahya, W. A., Olasunkanmi, A. R., Yusuf, Z. O., & Aderoju, S. A. (2024). Assessing leachate contamination and groundwater vulnerability in urban dumpsites: A case study of the Ipata Area, Ilorin, Nigeria. Journal of the nigerian society of physical sciences, 1889. https://doi.org/10.46481/jnsps.2024.1889
  33. [33] Udoh, A. C., Chinwuko, A. I., Onwuemesi, A. G., Anakwuba, E. K., Oyonga, A. O., & Usman, A. O. (2021). Impact of solid waste on groundwater quality in selected dumpsites in AkwaIbom State, Nigeria using resistivity and hydrochemical data. Bulletin of the mineral research and exploration, 164(164), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.19111/bulletinofmre.753240
  34. [34] Ekanem, I. I., Bassey, M. O., & Ikpe, A. E. (2024). Assessing the impact of radioactive contamination in groundwater and environmental quality: A comparative study of remediation technique. Risk assessment and management decisions, 1(2), 209–226. https://doi.org/10.48314/ramd.v1i2.39
  35. [35] George, N. J. (2021). Integrating hydrogeological and second-order geo-electric indices in groundwater vulnerability mapping: A case study of alluvial environments. Applied water science, 11(7), 123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01437-x%0A%0A
  36. [36] Akinlalu, A. A., Mogaji, K. A., & Adebodun, T. S. (2021). Assessment of aquifer vulnerability using a developed “GODL” method (Modified GOD model) in a schist belt environ, Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 193(4), 199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-08960-z%0A%0A
  37. [37] Hasan, M., Shang, Y., Jin, W., & Akhter, G. (2019). Assessment of aquifer vulnerability using integrated geophysical approach in weathered terrains of South China. Open geosciences, 11(1), 1129–1150. https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2019-0087
  38. [38] Ishola, S. A., Makinde, V., Alatise, O. O., Edunjobi, H. O., & Ogunkoya, C. O. (2025). Assessment of aquifer vulnerability status and groundwater management studies using integrated geophysical techniques in Ewekoro South-West Nigeria. Naturalis scientias, 2(2), 549–573. https://doi.org/10.62252/NSS.2025.1033
  39. [39] Hosseinian Fard, M. (2024). Geophysical characterization of an artificial water basin for seepage detection [Thesis]. https://webthesis.biblio.polito.it/31524/?template=default
  40. [40] Owunna, I. B., Ekanem, I. I., & Ikpe, A. E. (2024). An Appraisal on the dynamics of radionuclides contamination matrix: A generic review of radioactive assessment in environmental health. Annals of healthcare systems engineering, 1(1), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.22105/ahse.v1i1.24
  41. [41] Dawoud, M. A., & Al Hassan, W. A. (2025). Groundwater management and treatment: A resilient source for environmental protection. Sustainable remediation for pollution and climate resilience (pp. 661–693). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-5674-5_24%0A%0A
  42. [42] Singh, P., Rajkhowa, S., & Hussain, C. M. (2021). Management of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) in environment. Elsevier. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372230715
  43. [43] Emmanuel, O. O. (2022). Assessment of groundwater pollution from leakages of underground storage tanks of filling stations in ilorin metropolis, Nigeria [Thesis]. https://www.proquest.com/openview/86892ec0610ff5770586d4a11f982fff/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y
  44. [44] Carpenter Jr, W. O., Goodwiller, B. T., Chambers, J. P., Wren, D. G., & Kuhnle, R. A. (2014). Acoustic measurement of suspensions of clay and silt particles using single frequency attenuation and backscatter. Applied acoustics, 85, 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2014.04.013
  45. [45] La Cecilia, D. (2019). Comprehensive modeling of agrochemicals biodegradation in soil: A multidisciplinary approach to make informed choices to protect human health and the environment [Thesis]. https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/20691

Downloads

Published

2026-01-14

Issue

Vol. 3 No. 1 (2026): Journal of Civil Aspects and Structural Engineering

Section

Articles

How to Cite

William, G. ., Umoren, E., & Udo, G. (2026). Geophysical Assessment of Topsoil Quality and Aquifer Vulnerability in Ikot Ekpene Metropolis, Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Civil Aspects and Structural Engineering, 3(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.48314/jcase.v3i1.71

Similar Articles

1-10 of 11

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.